The 4W Model of Drowning for Lifesaving of Non-Aquatic and Swimming Activities
Abstract: Purpose: The purpose of this thesis was to identify who is the casualty, who is the rescuer, where and under what circumstances a drowning incident can occur and to develop a risk assessment model of drowning for lifesaving in swimming and other aquatic and non-aquatic activities. Method: Three studies were undertaken. Study 1: The key words ‘drown’, ‘aquatic emergency’, ‘risk factors’, ‘lifeguard’, ‘water safety’, ‘lifesaving’ and ‘rescue’ were used in a literature search aiming to identify quantitative research studies with variables that might involve in a drowning incident. Study 2: A criterion sampling method obtained videos (n=41) containing drowning incidents that were visually observed. Study 3: A combination of convenience and snowball sampling method obtained 34 semi-structured interviews from water safety professionals and aquatic athletes of different nations. The objective and subjective content of the video was recorded, the interviews were transcribed and both texts were inserted in the software NVIVO for content analysis. Conclusions: (1) When there is human activity in, on, around, near and under an aquatic environment, then, a drowning incident might happen to whomever (due to victim’s or rescuer’s mistake), wherever and under whatever circumstances. (2) The factors that determine the outcome of drowning incidents are, in order of significance, rescuer characteristics (Who 1), casualty characteristics (Who 2), location (Wherever), and general circumstances (Whatever). (3) Rescuer characteristics, and their interaction with other factors (mainly with casualty characteristics), appear to largely determine the outcome of drowning incidents. (4) Risk taking behaviour leads to drowning when casualties are willing to seek pleasure by engaging themselves in aquatic activities with risk that perceive as controllable. (5) The 4W model of drowning is a promising tool in lifesaving and lifeguarding.
To view the entire thesis, please access the link below:
http://leedsmet.academia.edu/documents/0042/8385/Stathis_Avramidis_PhD_T...
About the author: Dr Stathis Avramidis DipEd, BEd, MSc, DipRLSS, PhD is a Visiting Research Fellow in Leeds Metropolitan University (UK) and works in the Hellenic Center for Disease Control and Prevention (GR). He is the 2009 recepient of the Paragon Award of Aquatic Safety from the International Swimming Hall of Fame.
